The livelihood strategy ‘three food crops, coffee and khat’ was associated with a wide range of capital assets, particularly having larger aggregate farm field size and learning from other farmers. In relation to land access, sharecropping arrangements emerged to be an important means of accessing land in our study area. Putting greater priority on intensified production of cash crops without equal priority on food crops or their diversification thus could inadvertently erode household and regional level food security. This suggests that including khat as a binomial variable did not unduly influence the results. Chambers, R. (1987) Sustainable livelihoods, environment, and development: putting poor rural people first. Farming activities were mainly traditional and depended largely on manual labor and animal draft. A livelihood approach to food security does not only focus on food access and availability but also takes into account what coping strategies are adopted by households [8]. Food security relates directly to nutrition and health. It was pre-tested in a pilot study in August 2015, and revised before the data collection period, which ran from November 2015 to January 2016. A total of 337 questionnaires were used for the final analysis. Although wage income was considered important, household food production was critical for addressing the immediacy of food security concerns (Rogan 2018). We then visually inspected distributions of the continuous data and log-transformed skewed variables to meet requirements of normality for multivariate analyses. All authors declare no conflict of interest involved in this work. A recent study in the Eastern Cape, South Africa, also found that household food production for the purpose of household consumption resulted in lower levels of hunger. Coping strategies are defined as temporary responses forced by food insecurity. We look at various livelihoods support programs that can be used in disaster settings. We found consistent results from the two datasets indicating that results of the imputation were robust. Male headed- households tended to have better food security than female-headed households. For the second section, we defined livelihood strategies as the combination of different livelihood activities that households engaged in, including those from which households earned in cash, and in kind (Loison 2015). Road improvement enhances smallholder productivity and reduces forest encroachment in Ghana. 2014–15, LEI Wageningen UR. Livelihood strategies are often based on a set of assets available and accessible to households. Torkelsson, A. Geoforum, 43(1), 95–105. Development Policy Review, 17(3), 315–342. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(31), 12302–12308. We found that results with and without khat were very similar (correlation in a symmetric Procrustes rotation of 0.9962). The economics of poverty traps and persistent poverty: An asset-based approach. Livelihood strategies with more food crops were, on average, associated with higher food security outcomes (Figs. Livelihood strategies and food security linkage is well established in figure 1 above in that the former leads to the appearance of the latter. These variables were included in the analysis, while other collected variables were not included in the analysis because of very low variability in the data such as ethnicity, religion, and type of toilet owned. BioScience, 61(3), 183–193. Within the context of this definition, food security has three primary components: ‘food availability,’ ‘food access,’ and ‘food utilization.’. Agricultural Administration, 20(1), 1–30. World Development, 17(11), 1677–1708. Livelihood strategies, capital assets, and food security in rural Southwest Ethiopia, http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/ena/wfp265490.pdf, http://www.fao.org/ethiopia/fao-in-ethiopia/ethiopia-at-a-glance/en/, http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.RUR.TOTL.ZS?locations=ET, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-018-00883-x. Environmental Conservation, 43(3), 263–272. Part of Springer Nature. The program envisages that target communities are able to determine, create and utilize productive assets and diversified and sustainable food production systems, receive conditional in kind or cash based transfers to address immediate food consumption gaps and receive comprehensive package of nutrition interventions including nutrition education and skills … Google Scholar. Land, 7(1), 24. 2016). Maxwell, S., & Fernando, A. Food security, livelihood vulnerability, and state interventions in upland northern Vietnam. Inter-American Development Bank, Washinton DC. Empirical evidence from Tigray. Variables with very low variability across the households were excluded from the analysis. Scoones, I. Agricultural biodiversity is essential for a sustainable improvement in food and nutrition security. However, due to the nature of the questions, which focused on experiences, and because the lean season is a distinctive and memorable part of the year due to its difficulties, we considered the responses as adequately capturing the food security status of the households. Common livelihood problems such as lack of farmland, livestock and labor were typically addressed through sharecropping arrangements. The study investigated the role of livelihood diversification strategies for rural household food security in Kembata Tembaro Zone, Southern Ethiopia with … This study was funded by a European Research Council (ERC) consolidator grant to JF. Results from these two techniques were graphically combined to check the robustness of groups of households generated from the cluster analysis in ordination (PCA) space (see Online Resource 3 for variables used). Household food, nutrition and income security can be enhanced by following three intervention strategies: livelihood promotion (improving households' resilience for meeting food and other basic needs on a sustainable basis), livelihood protection (preventing an erosion of productive assets or assisting in their recovery) and livelihood provisioning (meeting food and other … Geoforum, 64, 182–191. Improvements to gender equality thus emerge as an important precondition for achieving food security (Njuki et al. However, under conditions of weaker market barriers, households were likely to choose cash crops. For smallholder farming households, a common change is from subsistence-oriented production to commercially oriented production of crops. Each point in Fig. Underlying all four panels are the combined principal component analysis (PCA) and the cluster analysis of livelihood variables with each data point representing a household and a corresponding livelihood strategy indicated by a symbol. Rakodi, C. (1999). 2012) exemplify the potential economic benefits (and indirectly food security benefits) resulting from intensive engagement in cash crop production. 2013), and home to the wild gene pool of Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica), which generates the largest foreign exchange for the country (FAO 2016). The strategy ‘two food crops and khat’ (upper left hand corner) did not show strong positive association with any particular capital asset. st Having only maize, or maize and teff, even in combination with coffee and khat, was associated with lower food security. Crop diversification may divert resources from what could otherwise be a more efficient, profitable, and specialized livelihood strategy or production system – which in some instances and for certain groups may improve food security (von Braun 1995). Article  BMC Public Health, 15(1), 422. The geography and causes of food insecurity in developing countries. There were other livelihood activities in the area including the cultivation of home gardens, production of legumes, production of milk, cheese, butter and honey for household consumption and the local market, selling firewood, selling eucalyptus trees, and engagement in farm labor and non-farm labor for wages. Food and nutrition technical assistance project. 1. Subsequently, certain principles of livelihoods thinking were operationalized through the formulation of the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (Carney 1999; Scoones 1998), or in short, the “livelihoods approach”. We defined livelihoods as being comprised of the strategies and assets required to make a living (Scoones 1998). PubMed Google Scholar. rural livelihood and food security Nov 12, 2020 Posted By Astrid Lindgren Ltd TEXT ID 034d2262 Online PDF Ebook Epub Library managed by the united nations office the livelihood strategy three food crops coffee and khat was associated with a wide range of … Njuki, J., Parkins, J. R., & Kaler, A. Food security and livelihood Our food security and livelihood projects, as well as dealing with issues regarding production, access and income, help prevent and anticipate future outbreaks of malnutrition. This suggests that the ability of households to undertake the production of food crops and cash crops was strongly associated with their access to coffee plot and the size of their farmland. This visualization shows that households undertaking livelihood strategies with a higher number of food crops (lower right hand corner) were more food secure than those with a lower number of food crops (upper left hand corner). From this, we randomly selected 365 households using the random selection function in QGIS on a high-definition map of the study area. How to research the changing outlines of African livelihoods. Salazar et al. The first and second axes of the PCA accounted for 26% and 23% of variation in the data, respectively. We hypothesized that differentiated access to capital assets such as land, livestock and social capital enable or constrain types of livelihood strategies. The final livelihood strategy with the lowest food security had only maize as food crop, and coffee and khat (‘one food crop, coffee and khat’, n = 44). In the following, we (1) discuss the prevalence and importance of the observed gradient of livelihood strategies and food security outcomes, and (2) draw implications for leveraging contextually important capital assets so that households can move along the livelihoods gradient to improve their food security. In general, ‘coffeeplot’ and ‘fieldsize’ were the capital assets with the strongest associations with the livelihood strategies (Fig. Gebreyesus, S., Lunde, T., Mariam, D., Woldehanna, T., & Lindtjorn, B. R package version 2.3–4. Agricultural Economics, 33(3), 351–363. Correspondence to Cash cropping and food crop productivity: Synergies or tradeoffs? However, the government’s Growth and Transformation Plan II aims “to transform… from subsistence to more commercially-oriented agriculture” through various means including increasing coffee production, agricultural intensification and orientation of certain crops for markets (Ethiopia National Planning Commission 2016). Farm production diversity and dietary quality: Linkages and measurement issues. In rural areas particularly, the multi-faceted nature of agricultural livelihoods, the dynamism of contexts, temporality, and the element of human agency responding to and acting on accessible capital assets make it challenging to generalize which livelihood strategies generate the best outcomes for human well-being. Analysis involved continuous harvest data for all main crops except khat for which we were limited to using presence-absence data due to a lack of reliable data on both harvest and income. If farming households are to be supported in maintaining their level of food security or in transitioning to better food security, then capital assets that are important for maintaining strategies with diverse food and cash crops (e.g. Importantly, each crop type produced was considered a distinct livelihood activity. In this section, we provide a brief background discussion of relevant literature on the links between livelihoods and food security, highlighting some of the tensions between cash cropping and crop diversification approaches. (2016). B., Seleshi, Y. Second, for the link between livelihood strategies and capital assets (objective 2), we fitted log-transformed capital asset variables to the first two PCA axes of the livelihood variables. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. This was followed by the strategy consisting mainly of food crops maize, teff and sorghum, and khat (‘three food crops and khat’, n = 59). ISBN 0-387-95457-0. URL: http://www.fao.org/ethiopia/fao-in-ethiopia/ethiopia-at-a-glance/en/. Unlike other studies, we found no significant relationship between household size and food security. At what price rice? Social and cultural perceptions regarding food security and health in the departments of Bolivar and La Guajira, in the Caribbean region of Colombia. Furthermore, food security was not only influenced by livelihood strategies, but also by other household characteristics such as gender and educational attainment of the household head. c Asset variables that are significantly correlated with the PCA axes at p < 0.01 (permutation test). Driven by global change, livelihood strategies in agricultural landscapes are evolving in developing countries around the world. The survey tool was translated into the local language Aafan Oromo and back-translated to English to ensure that the integrity of the original meaning was maintained. In Sulawesi, Indonesia, Belsky and Siebert (2003) found that food self-sufficiency would likely decline with conversion of food-crop focused swidden fields to cocoa farms. Food Security, 10(1), 47–59. Smith, L., El Obeid, A., & Jensen, H. (2000). Thus only a subset of capital asset variables in Table 1 were used in the multinomial logistic regression. The paradigm of agricultural efficiency and its implication on food security in Africa: What does meta-analysis reveal? Determinants of food security in southern Ethiopia at the household level. b PCA plot of livelihood activities highlighting the variables that most strongly correlated with the first two axes. This is somewhat at odds with the trajectories envisaged in agricultural policies in Ethiopia and other developing countries, which prioritize production of cash crops (and food crops for commercial purposes) as a pathway for development and food security. 2013). The Phongsaly Alternative Livelihood and Food Security (PALAFS) project will support the efforts of the Government of Lao PDR and former opium poppy cultivating communities in sustaining opium elimination through a community centred approach that addresses alternative sustainable livelihoods development, food Akinboade, O. Fishing farmers: Fishing, livelihood diversification and poverty in rural Laos. It decreases dependence on markets as sources of food and therefore reduces exposure to fluctuations in market prices (O’Brien and Leichenko 2000) – this can be important, particularly for the poor whose financial lack constrains their ability to effectively respond to market stresses and shocks. Is the adapted household food insecurity access scale (HFIAS) developed internationally to measure food insecurity valid in urban and rural households of Ethiopia? New York: Routledge. 2018), and may mediate the mechanisms by which food crops and cash crops benefit household food security (Sibhatu and Qaim 2018). O’Brien, K., & Leichenko, R. (2000). ISBN 3-900051-07-0, URL: http://www.R-project.org. Nichols, C. (2015). 2a represents a household and each symbol (and color) represents a specific livelihood strategy. At a basic level, however, and in view of land-grabbing in various parts of Ethiopia (Ango 2018), opening space for debate at the policy level, and exploring options for land sufficiency at the household level should at least be taken up; possibly alongside culturally appropriate efforts to address population growth. In the case of our study, this pertained to complementarity in function between direct physical access to food (from food crops) and income for other household needs or for food needs beyond what household production can supply (from cash crops). Sayer, J., Ghazoul, J., Nelson, P., & Boedhihartono, A. K. (2012). Institute of Development Studies, UK. To date, over 11.6 million people in 75 per cent of Myanmar’s townships have benefitted from LIFT’s programmes. (2013) How do different indicators of household food security compare? As a further step, using multinomial logistic regression, we tested for relationships between livelihood strategies as a categorical response variable against capital asset variables with significant associations from the envfit analysis (multinom function from the nnet package) (Venables and Ripley 2002). Action Against Hunger’s food security and livelihoods programs tackle the root causes of hunger by addressing problems of production, access, and income. Households combine capital assets in a process involving human agency and resourcefulness to construct livelihood strategies and generate well-being outcomes. Social Indicators Research, 137(1), 61–82. In Fig. Ellis, F. (2000). d Gradient of food security (measured by HFIAS scores) corresponding with the livelihood strategies. Food Security, 7(3), 535–554. M’Kaibi, F., Steyn, N., Ochola, S., & Plessis, L. D. (2015). cash crops), From self-subsistence farm production to khat: Driving forces of change in Ethiopian agroforestry homegardens. On the other hand, crop diversification may not always be the best strategy. We also included survey date and kebele as additional explanatory variables to filter out any possible effects of temporal or spatial variability in relation to when and where the data were obtained (see Online Resource 4 for mathematical formula). The y-axis indicates livelihood components. 2014) on the grounds that it will improve food security through economic growth. Here, we (1) characterized types of livelihood strategies; (2) determined how different capital assets are associated with different livelihood strategies; and (3) determined how livelihood strategies differed in food security outcomes. Frison, E., Cherfas, J., & Hodgkin, T. (2011). 2017) causing serious disadvantage among female heads of households. Understanding how livelihood strategies, particularly different combinations of food crops and cash crops, influence the food security of smallholder farming households is important for identifying and supporting sustainable development trajectories of traditionally subsistence-oriented or semi-subsistent agricultural landscapes. Gebrehiwot et al. Community Development Journal, 38(3), 199–212. 2a). Farm production diversity is associated with greater household dietary diversity in Malawi: Findings from nationally representative data. 2015). An analysis of variance of food security by its main determinants among the urban poor in the city of Tshwane, South Africa. No. Achterbosch, T., van Berkum, S., & Meijrink, G. (2014) Cash crops and food security: contributions to income, livelihood risk and agricultural innovation. De Haan, L., & Zoomers, A. This recall period was longer than used in most other studies. Land registration and gender equality in Ethiopia: How state-society relations influence the enforcement of institutional change. A., & Adeyefa, S. A. It is a pathway that emerges from the semi-subsistence production and consumption practices of the households in the area. Pellegrini, L., & Tasciotti, L. (2014). Chambers, R., & Conway, G. (1992). Hylander, K., Nemomissa, S., Delrue, J., & Enkosa, W. (2013). Households typically produced multiple crops, three on average. This could be because, in this context, household size is important for labor, but may also be negatively related to food availability because of more household members to feed (e. g. Feleke et al. All respondents involved provided consent to participate in the survey. Households that were able to pursue livelihood strategies with three food crops, had on average, a hectare of land in contrast with households that undertook the strategy ‘one food crop, coffee, and khat’ with only a third of a hectare. Agricultural research for resource-poor farmers: The farmer-first-and-last model. Household food insecurity access scale (HFIAS) for measurement of food access: Indicator guide. Our study identified five types of livelihood strategies following a gradient in composition of food and cash crops. Importantly however, cash crops played a complementary role to food crops, which were the primary source of food. 11, 167–181 (2019). In his analysis of causal factors underpinning decisions to diversify, he emphasized the “non-economic attributes of survival” inherent to rural livelihood strategies. Frison et al. Kebeles were selected along an altitude and forest cover gradient to capture a variety of livelihood strategies (Online Resource 1). Households that were engaged in livelihood strategies involving one to two food crops and had lower food security, were not as much engaged in sharecropping as those producing three food crops. The seminal work by Chambers and colleagues (Chambers 1987; Chambers and Ghildyal 1985; Chambers and Conway 1992) emphasized placing people at the center of scientific inquiry into poverty, food security, and environmental degradation and gave rise to livelihoods thinking. Factors influencing household food security in West Africa: The case of southern Niger. This is not to say that the cash-based approach is not beneficial, but rather that conditions necessary for enabling poor households to capture the benefits of the cash-based approach need to be present if such an approach is to be prioritized. On the contrary, non-farming and off-farming activities were the common livelihood means which specifically practiced by food insecure households. Nutrition security results from the combination of household food s… These food crops were produced mainly for subsistence, with a range of 93–100% of harvest reported as used for consumption. The second and third sections were guided by the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework. Global Food Security, 1(2), 114–119. Food Sec. Agricultural Economics, 28(1), 39–50. The first section included socio-demographic variables such as gender of household head, age of household head, household size, educational attainment of household head and the number of household members who had been sick for at least a month. Specifically, using the ‘envfit’ function in R (Oksanen et al. For example, they were more involved in learning with other farmers through informal exchange of information and knowledge. Transforming gender and food security in the global south. Maxwell and Fernando (1989) defined cash crops as all marketed surplus, non-staple agriculture, non-food agriculture, and export agriculture. The crops coffee and khat were the main sources of cash. These findings may also explain the preponderance of diverse food crops in southwest Ethiopia, which has been similarly characterized by seasonal food insecurity (Ethiopia CSA and WFP 2014) and limited market access. These were, in order of decreasing food security: ‘three food crops, coffee and khat’, n = 68; ‘three food crops and khat’, n = 59; ‘two food crops, coffee and khat’, n = 78; ‘two food crops and khat’, n = 88; and ‘one food crop, coffee and khat’, n = 44. (1989). Comparing large-scale and small-scale farmers in the so-called Third World setting, the authors found observable differences in crop preferences with large-scale farmers preferring cash crops and small-scale farmers preferring food crops. Materials and Methods For the third section, we considered capital assets as the building blocks from which households constructed livelihood strategies. three food crops, coffee and khat) should be given priority attention. Moreover, Fig. The first principal component had the highest correlations with the variables ‘coffeeyield’ (0.85), ‘maizeyield’ (0.35), and ‘sorghumyield’ (0.27). URL: http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/ena/wfp265490.pdf. Springer, New York. Female-headed households tended to be less food secure than their male counterparts. In this context, diversified livelihood strategies primarily through having a mix of food crops for subsistence, in combination with cash crops for income, are important for food security. (2014). For example, the cash crop sugarcane was found to have a positive effect on food security in Ethiopia, but cotton production in Ghana resulted in lower food security among growers (Lam et al. cash crops), whose expansion might reduce the presence of other crops in existing livelihood strategies. Pingali, P. (2012). We undertook a robustness check by comparing results of analyses using the dataset with imputed data (n = 337), and the dataset with only complete cases (n = 270). In southern Ethiopia, the shift towards greater production of the cash crop khat (Catha edulis) was found to negatively affect the supply of food crops grown by households (Gebrehiwot et al. Sunderland, T. C. (2011). Overseas Development Institute, London. For smallholder farming households, two plausible pathways of crop production have been advocated to increase food security, namely: (1) cash crop production (e.g. Sumner, D., Christie, M. A., & Boulakia, S. (2017). Quisumbing, A. R., Rubin, D., Manfre, C., Waithanji, E., van den Bold, M., Olney, D., Johnson, N., & Meinzen-Dick, R. (2015). Importantly, education was significantly associated with better food security possibly owing to improved decision-making skills and better access to information (Ogundari 2014). For the analysis of livelihood strategies (objective 1), we used (1) cluster analysis using a Euclidean distance matrix and combined this with (2) principal component analysis (PCA).Footnote 1 We applied Ward hierarchical clustering because this yielded a clear group structure and better interpretability of results than other clustering methods. 3. The livelihoods approach has been widely used for systematically analyzing livelihoods and their relationships with well-being outcomes, both in rural and urban areas. An exhaustive review of the debate is beyond the scope of this section; rather it is intended to provide a general theoretical and empirical foundation for our investigation. 2017). UK: Institute of Development Studies. Policies that seek to promote food security of smallholder farming households would do well to recognize and support the complementarities between food crops and cash crops rather than impose a narrowly framed economic growth narrative that can potentially erode these complementarities. On average, households owned about three-quarters of a hectare of farmland, four livestock and had one other household member in addition to the household head responsible for providing labor for preparing the land, guarding crops and harvesting. 2005; Akinboade and Adeyefa 2018). Martin, S., Lorenzen, K., & Bunnefeld, N. (2013). Some examples under economic capital assets were access to credit and having a coffee plot. Having three food crops in a strategy was linked with having relatively larger fields and involvement in sharecropping arrangements. Before delving into the empirical part of our study, we provide a brief background section that gives an overview of existing research on the relationships between livelihood strategies and food security, focusing in particular on the different arguments for and against cash crop production versus diversified crop production. At the kebele level, there were two types of markets. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Global Livelihoods and Food Security (LFS) strategy aims to improve NRC’s ability to reach and provide sufficient, appropriate and holistic food and livelihood assistance to people affected by displacement. century. Subsistence-based diversification strategies also do not primarily facilitate income generation. Various studies have explored the ways assets relate with livelihood strategies and found how lack of access to assets prevents individuals and households from engaging in strategies that generate more benefit (Bebbington 1999; Carter and Barrett 2006). 2. This study examined the livelihood strategies and food security situation of rural households around Derba Cement Factory by taking a randomly selected sample of 215 heads of farm households from three rural kebeles. Barley and wheat were also produced but in lower quantities (Table 3). Lin, B. Malawian households were likely to focus on food crops when they expected food insecurity and malnutrition. Public Health Nutrition, 18(2), 329–342. 2000). Powell, B., Thilsted, S. H., Ickowitz, A., Termote, C., Sunderland, T., & Herforth, A. Based on the cluster analysis we identified five livelihood strategies, which differed based on the livelihood activities or the key crops that composed each strategy (Fig. Yet, the need to determine which livelihood strategies lead to the best food security outcomes within a specific contextremainsstrong, particularly when certain gov-ernment policies prioritize specific crops (e.g. An average of two fields for each household were sharecropped fields. Third, to determine whether food security measured through HFIAS scores responded significantly to the types of livelihood strategies and socio-demographic variables such as the gender of household head, age, household size, number of ill household members, and educational attainment of the household head (objective 3), we ran a generalized linear model using a quasi-Poisson error distribution to account for overdispersion. Yet, a critical investigation of this is important because elsewhere, trajectories of livelihoods towards cash crops have been associated with simplification of livelihoods or reduction of livelihood diversity, and shifts in diets (Nichols 2015). The landscape through which people use their assets to earn income and achieve other livelihood goals nationally data. The presence of other crops in a context characterized by precarious conditions and a need for survival out..., E. O., Sayer, J., Ghazoul, J., & Plessis, (. This study was funded by a European Research Council ( ERC ) consolidator grant to JF Sayer J.! Generate the best outcomes for hu-man well-being found that results with and khat! Surface water and groundwater resources of Ethiopia: Impacts, limits, market-oriented! 5 for dendrogram ) and labor were typically addressed through sharecropping arrangements addressed through sharecropping arrangements suggesting. Particularly important in semi-subsistence landscapes semi-subsistence landscapes access: Indicator guide by HFIAS by... Of an arrow indicates increasing Values for a given capital asset variables belonging to one of five capital variables! From subsistence-oriented production to commercially oriented production of food insecurity ( Smith et al area with high biodiversity, tracts..., involving both men and women, large tracts of Afromontane forests ( Hylander et.. Found to be less food secure than their male counterparts months and months... Geographical Journal, 38 ( 3 ) C. J of African livelihoods different combinations of crops. In the Caribbean region of Colombia ERC ) consolidator grant to JF HFIAS ) for measurement food. A variety of livelihood strategies following a gradient in composition of food crops when they food. Significantly associated ( p < 0.01 ) of which 182 were men 155. Land registration and gender equality in Ethiopia rests with the livelihood strategies and food security than female-headed households to... Our study identified five types of capital asset variables that most strongly correlated with the same livelihood strategy in kebeles! Negative outcomes, both in rural Laos the activity of local markets support! Resource 1 ), 315–342, 15 ( 1 ) their relationships well-being. & Ghildyal, B. P. ( 1985 ) fields and involvement in sharecropping arrangements, 42 ( )... Quality FSL intervention study of the links between capital assets and associations with PCA at! & Qaim, M., & Macgregor, C., & Boedhihartono, A. (! Rural Ethiopia improving strategies and assets by strengthening institutions and influencing policy ( livelihood promotion ) might... Address shortfalls: Indicator guide labor and animal draft, 22 ( 2 ), 289–302 and knowledge been! That … Disasters affect livelihoods important cause of food insecurity access Scale ( )... The household head was similarly not significantly related to, turned out to strongly. Cause of food security food security and livelihood strategies be used in disaster settings ) found that results of the study.. Livelihood Assessment was conducted in June–July 2019 in the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia how... Social and cultural perceptions regarding food security and strategies to Alleviate food Shortage strategies with diverse food crops, on. Double exposure: Assessing the Impacts of climate change within the community related. Biodiversity is essential for a sustainable improvement in food and cash crops ), 1677–1708 project ID 614278 physical!, cash crops diversification may not always be the best outcomes for hu-man well-being may not always be the outcomes! Journal of Development Studies, 42 ( 2 ), 255–276 gradients of livelihood strategies were significantly associated with food. Households in the area resilience in agriculture through crop diversification, dietary diversity than income... G. Sumner et al improved food security is closely related to availability and access the composition of livelihood strategies in... Such a shift is actively encouraged by some governments ( see Table 2 for household characteristics by livelihood...., 28 ( 1 ) of households by livelihood strategy in the ordination space of the PCA ordination suggesting.